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Deinking is the industrial process of removing printing ink from paperfibers of recycled paper to make deinked pulp.

The key in the deinking process is the ability to detach ink from the fibers. This is achieved by a combination of mechanical action and chemical means. In Europe the most common process is froth flotation deinking.

Paper is one of the main targets for recycling. A concern about recycling wood pulp paper is that the fibers are degraded with each cycle and after being recycled 4–6 times the fibers become too short and weak to be useful in making paper.^[1]

History[edit]

Before the invention of the paper machine in 1799 the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, hence the name rag paper. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was independent of recycled materials.^[2]

Recycling of used paper before the industrialisation of paper production, rag paper was recycled to make low-grade board. A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.^[2] He practiced together with German paper producer Johann Engelhard Schmid. Today this method is called deinking.

First in the 1950s and 1960s the use of recycled fibres from paper made of wood pulp begun to increase, and was mainly used in packaging paper and paperboard. In the 1950s the froth flotation technique was adapted for deinking recycled paper.^[3] Use of recovered paper increased in the 1970s mainly in graphic and hygienic papers, and accelerated in the 1980s. The annual growth in use of recovered paper increased by 6% between 1980 and 1996. The use of virgin fibres only increased 2% in the same period. In 1997 recovered paper production was 42% of the total paper production.^[2]

Deinking process[edit]

Sorting[edit]

Waste paper may contain a mixture of different paper types made of mixtures of different paperfibers. These must be sorted before processed. Broke (paper waste from paper production) is normally used directly in the papermachine.

• Office waste (OW)
• Old magazine papers (OMP)
• Old newsprint (ONP)

Recycled paper can be used to make paper of the same or lower quality than it was originally. The sorted paper is baled and shipped to a papermill. The pulpmill uses waste paper grade according to the paper quality they want to make.

Debaling[edit]

The bales are opened and large foreign objects are sorted out on the conveyor belt to the pulper. Many extraneous materials are readily removed. Twine, strapping, etc. are removed from the hydropulper by a 'ragger'. Metal straps and staples can be screened out or removed by a magnet. Film-backed pressure-sensitive tape stays intact: the PSA adhesive and the backing are both removed together.^[4]

Pulping[edit]

Pulpers are either batch, which uses a tub with a high shear rotor, or continuous, using a long, perforated drum. Drum pulpers are very expensive but have the advantage of not breaking up contaminants, thus giving cleaner end product.

The pulper chops the paper to smaller pieces; water and chemicals are added. Normally the pH is adjusted to 8.5 - 10.0. Normal deinking chemicals are:

• pH control: sodium silicate or sodium hydroxide
• Bleaching: hydrogen peroxide
• Calciumion source: hard water, lime or calcium chloride
• Collector: fatty acid, fatty acid emulsion, fatty acid soap or organo-modified siloxane^[5]

After pulping, the mixture is a slurry. The slurry goes to screening.

Cleaning and screening[edit]

Centrifugal cleaning is spinning the pulp slurry in a cleaner, causing materials that are denser than pulp fibers to move outward and be rejected. Screens, with either slots or holes, are used to remove contaminants that are larger than pulp fibers.

Materials which are more difficult to remove include wax coatings on corrugated cartons and stickies, soft rubbery particles which can make deposits and contaminate the recycled paper. Stickies can originate from book bindings, hot melt adhesives, PSA adhesives from paper labels, laminating adhesives of reinforced gummed tapes, etc.^[6][7][8]

Deinking stage[edit]

In the deinking stage the goal is to release and remove the hydrophobic contaminants from the recycled paper. The contaminants are mostly printing ink and stickies. Several processes are used, most commonly flotation or washing.

Flotation deinking[edit]

Froth flotation was adapted from the flotation process used in the mining industry in the 1960s. It is the most common deinking process in Europe used to recover recycled paper. Often most of the collector is added to the inlet of the flotation. The process temperatures are normally in the range 45 - 55 °C. Air is blown into the pulp suspension. The collector has affinity both to the ink particles and air bubbles, causing them to attach. The air bubbles lift the ink to the surface and form a thick froth that can be removed. Normally the setup is a two-stage system with 3, 4 or 5 flotation cells in series.^[9] Flotation deinking is very effective in removing ink particles larger than about 10 µm.

Wash deinking[edit]

Wash deinking consists of a washing stage where dispersants are added to wash out the printing inks. When the pulp slurry is dewatered (thickened), the medium to fine particles are washed out. This process is most useful for removing particles smaller than about 30 µm, like water-based inks, fillers, coating particles, fines and micro stickies. This process is more common when making deinked pulp for tissue. The processing equipment are belt filters, pressure belt filters, disk filters and static filters. This stage is much more efficient than normal washing / dewatering stages.

Combined washing and flotation[edit]

High quality deinking of office wastes and other printing papers often commonly uses a combination of washing and flotation.

Enzymatic deinking[edit]

This method of deinking uses industrial or food grade enzymes in conjunction with flotation deinking to aid in the removal of inks in recycling mills. More efficient removal of ink increases fiber yield, decreases dirt count, and increases paper brightness. Often the use of enzymatic deinking helps mills reduce their bleach usage or use cheaper furnish.

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Other deinking processes[edit]

Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is used by some mills in the deinking stage and will remove some ink and filler (ash); however, it is mainly used to clarify the process water.

Washing / dewatering[edit]

Washing / dewatering (thickening) is a filtration process. Small particles (< 5 µm) are removed by passing water through the pulp.

Bleaching[edit]

If white paper is desired, bleaching uses peroxides or hydrosulfites to increase the brightness of the pulp. The bleaching methods are similar for mechanical pulp, but the goal is to make the fiber brighter.

Papermaking[edit]

The deinked fiber is made into a new paper product in the same way that virgin wood fiber, see papermaking.

Byproducts[edit]

The unusable material left over, mainly ink, plastics, filler and short fibers, is called sludge. The sludge is buried in a landfill, burned to create energy at the paper mill or used as a fertilizer by local farmers.

Problems[edit]

Water based flexographic printing inks with particle sizes below 5 µm and poor solubility in alkaline conditions may cause problems in deinking, especially in the flotation stage. The solution is to use an extra acidic washing stage.

Temperature control is important as this affects the stickiness of stickies.

Additional issues arise when taking into account the number of chemicals potentially present in paper for recycling. Studies have indicated that paper might contain as many as 10,000 different chemicals,^[10] fate of which in the deinking process still remains unknown. Polychlorinated biphenyls are often found in pigments which are used in newspaper and magazine paper.^[11]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'Paper Recycling Information Sheet'. Waste Online. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
2. ^ ^abcGöttsching, Lothar; Pakarinen, Heikki (2000). '1'. Recycled Fiber and Deinking. Papermaking Science and Technology. 7. Finland: Fapet Oy. pp. 12–14. ISBN978-952-5216-07-3.
3. ^Sixta, Herbert, ed. (2006). Handbook of Pulp. 2. Germany: Wiley-VCH. p. 1174. ISBN978-3-527-30999-3.
4. ^Jensen, Timothy (April 1999). 'Packaging Tapes: To Recycle of Not'. Adhesives and Sealants Council. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2007-11-06.
5. ^WO 011717, Nellesen, Bernhard & Christina Northfleet, 'METHOD OF DEINKING', published 05.02.2004, issued 2004
6. ^'Recycling Compatible Adhesives Standards'. Tag and Label Manufacturers Institute. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2007-11-06.
7. ^'Voluntary Standard for Repulping and Recycling Corrugated Fiberboard'(PDF). Corrugated Packaging Alliance. 2005. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2007-11-06.
8. ^Seiter, Pikulin (October 1998). 'Environmentally benign USPS stamps'(PDF). TAPPI Pulping Conference. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
9. ^Voith EcoCell flotation plant 'Archived copy'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2009-08-24. Retrieved 2009-01-08.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
10. ^Pivnenko, Kostyantyn; Eriksson, Eva; Astrup, Thomas F. (2015). 'Waste paper for recycling: Overview and identification of potentially critical substances'. Waste Management. 45: 134–142. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2015.02.028. PMID25771763.
11. ^Grossman, Elizabeth (2013-03-01). 'Nonlegacy PCBs: Pigment Manufacturing By-Products Get a Second Look'. Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (3): a86–a93. doi:10.1289/ehp.121-a86. ISSN0091-6765. PMC3621189. PMID23454657.

Further reading[edit]

• Göttsching, Lothar; Pakarinen, Heikki (2000). Papermaking Science and Technology: 7. Recycled Fiber and Deinking. Finland. ISBN978-952-5216-07-3.

Papier-mâché (UK: /ˌpæpieɪˈmæʃeɪ/, US: /ˌpeɪpərməˈʃeɪ/; French: [papje mɑʃe], literally 'chewed paper', 'pulped paper', or 'mashed paper') is a composite material consisting of paper pieces or pulp, sometimes reinforced with textiles, bound with an adhesive, such as glue, starch, or wallpaper paste.

The substance has been used since 200 B.C China. Today papier-mâché sculptures are used as an economic building material for a variety of traditional and ceremonial activities, as well as in arts and crafts.

Preparation methods[edit]

Two main methods are used to prepare papier-mâché. The first method makes use of paper strips glued together with adhesive, and the other uses paper pulp obtained by soaking or boiling paper to which glue is then added.

With the first method, a form for support is needed on which to glue the paper strips. With the second method, it is possible to shape the pulp directly inside the desired form. In both methods, reinforcements with wire, chicken wire, lightweight shapes, balloons or textiles may be needed.

The traditional method of making papier-mâché adhesive is to use a mixture of water and flour or other starch, mixed to the consistency of heavy cream. Other adhesives can be used if thinned to a similar texture, such as polyvinyl acetate-based glues (wood glue or, in the United States, white Elmer's glue). Adding oil of cloves or other additives such as salt to the mixture reduces the chances of the product developing mold.

For the paper strips method, the paper is cut or torn into strips, and soaked in the paste until saturated. The saturated pieces are then placed onto the surface and allowed to dry slowly. The strips may be placed on an armature, or skeleton, often of wire mesh over a structural frame, or they can be placed on an object to create a cast. Oil or grease can be used as a release agent if needed. Once dried, the resulting material can be cut, sanded and/or painted, and waterproofed by painting with a suitable water-repelling paint.^[1] Before painting any product of papier-mâché, the glue must be fully dried, otherwise mold will form and the product will rot from the inside out.

For the pulp method, the paper is left in water at least overnight to soak, or boiled in abundant water until the paper breaks down to a pulp. The excess water is drained, an adhesive is added and the papier-mâché applied to a form or, especially for smaller or simpler objects, sculpted to shape.

History[edit]

Imperial China[edit]

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The Chinese under the ruling of the Han dynasty appeared to first use papier-mâché around 200 B.C., not long after they learned how to make paper. They employed the technique to make items such as warrior helmets, mirror cases, snuff boxes, or ceremonial masks.

Ancient Egypt[edit]

In ancient Egypt, coffins and death masks were often made from cartonnage—layers of papyrus or linen covered with plaster.

Middle and Far East[edit]

In Persia, papier-mâché has been used to manufacture small painted boxes, trays, étagères and cases. Japan and China also produced laminated paper articles using papier-mâché. In Japan and India, papier-mâché was used to add decorative elements to armor and shields.^[2]

Kashmir[edit]

In Kashmir as in Persia, papier-mâché has been used to manufacture small painted boxes, bowls lined with metals, trays, étagères and cases. It remains highly marketed in India and is a part of the luxury ornamental handicraft market.^[2]

Europe[edit]

Starting around 1725 in Europe, gilded papier-mâché began to appear as a low-cost alternative to similarly treated plaster or carved wood in architecture. Henry Clay of Birmingham, England, patented a process for treating laminated sheets of paper with linseed oil to produce waterproof panels in 1772. These sheets were used for building coach door panels as well as other structural uses. Theodore Jennens patented a process in 1847 for steaming and pressing these laminated sheets into various shapes, which were then used to manufacture trays, chair backs, and structural panels, usually laid over a wood or metal armature for strength. The papier-mâché was smoothed and lacquered, or finished with a pearl shell finish. The industry lasted through the 19th century.^[3] Russia had a thriving industry in ornamental papier-mâché. A large assortment of painted Russian papier-mâché items appear in a Tiffany & Co. catalog from 1893.^[4]Martin Travers the English ecclesiastical designer made much use of papier-mâché for his church furnishings in the 1930s.

Papier-mâché has been used for doll heads starting as early as 1540, molded in two parts from a mixture of paper pulp, clay, and plaster, and then glued together, with the head then smoothed, painted and varnished.^[5]

Mexico[edit]

Cartonería or papier-mâché sculptures are a traditional handcraft in Mexico. The papier-mâché works are also called 'carton piedra' (rock cardboard) for the rigidness of the final product.^[1] These sculptures today are generally made for certain yearly celebrations, especially for the Burning of Judas during Holy Week and various decorative items for Day of the Dead. However, they also include piñatas, mojigangas, masks, dolls and more made for various other occasions. There is also a significant market for collectors as well. Papier-mâché was introduced into Mexico during the colonial period, originally to make items for church. Since then, the craft has developed, especially in central Mexico. In the 20th century, the creation of works by Mexico City artisans Pedro Linares and Carmen Caballo Sevilla were recognized as works of art with patrons such as Diego Rivera. The craft has become less popular with more recent generations, but various government and cultural institutions work to preserve it.

Paper boats[edit]

One common item made in the 19th century in America was the paper canoe, most famously made by Waters & Sons of Troy, New York. The invention of the continuous sheet paper machine allows paper sheets to be made of any length, and this made an ideal material for building a seamless boat hull. The paper of the time was significantly stretchier than modern paper, especially when damp, and this was used to good effect in the manufacture of paper boats. A layer of thick, dampened paper was placed over a hull mold and tacked down at the edges. A layer of glue was added, allowed to dry, and sanded down. Additional layers of paper and glue could be added to achieve the desired thickness, and cloth could be added as well to provide additional strength and stiffness. The final product was trimmed, reinforced with wooden strips at the keel and gunwales to provide stiffness, and waterproofed. Paper racing shells were highly competitive during the late 19th century. Few examples of paper boats survived. One of the best known paper boats was the canoe, the 'Maria Theresa', used by Nathaniel Holmes Bishop to travel from New York to Florida in 1874–75. An account of his travels was published in the book Voyage of the Paper Canoe.^[6][7]

Paper masks[edit]

Creating papier-mâché masks is common among elementary school children and craft lovers. Either one's own face or a balloon can be used as a mold. This is common during Halloween time as a facial mask complements the costume.^[8]

Paper observatory domes[edit]

Papier-mâché panels were used in the late 19th century and early 20th century to produce lightweight domes, used primarily for observatories. The domes were constructed over a wooden or iron framework, and the first ones were made by the same manufacturer that made the early paper boats, Waters & Sons. The domes used in observatories had to be light in weight so that they could easily be rotated to position the telescope opening in any direction, and large enough so that it could cover the large refractortelescopes in use at the time.^[9][10][11]

Paper sabots[edit]

Papier-mâché was used in a number of firearms as a material to form sabots. Despite the extremely high pressures and temperatures in the bore of a firearm, papier-mâché proved strong enough to contain the pressure, and push a sub-caliber projectile out of the barrel with a high degree of accuracy. Papier-mâché sabots were used in everything from small arms, such as the Dreyseneedle gun, up to artillery, such as the Schenkl projectile.^[12][13]

Modern use[edit]

With modern plastics and composites taking over the decorative and structural roles that papier-mâché played in the past, papier-mâché has become less of a commercial product. There are exceptions, such as Micarta, a modern paper composite, and traditional applications such as the piñata. It is still used in cases where the ease of construction and low cost are important, such as in arts and crafts.

Carnival floats[edit]

Papier-mâché is commonly used for large, temporary sculptures such as Carnivalfloats. A basic structure of wood, metal and metal wire mesh, such as poultry netting, is covered in papier-mâché. Once dried, details are added. The papier-mâché is then sanded and painted. Carnival floats can be very large and comprise a number of characters, props and scenic elements, all organized around a chosen theme. They can also accommodate several dozen people, including the operators of the mechanisms. The floats can have movable parts, like the facial features of a character, or its limbs. It is not unusual for local professional architects, engineers, painters, sculptors and ceramists to take part in the design and construction of the floats. New Orleans Mardi Gras float maker Blaine Kern, operator of the Mardi Gras World float museum, brings Carnival float artists from Italy to work on his floats.^[14][15]

Theatrical use[edit]

Papier-mâché is an economic building material for both sets and costume elements.^[1][16] It is also employed in puppetry.A famous company that popularized it is Bread and Puppet Theater founded by Peter Schumann.

War-time uses[edit]

Military drop tanks[edit]

During World War II, military aircraft fuel tanks were constructed out of plastic-impregnated paper and used to extend the range or loiter time of aircraft. These tanks were plumbed to the regular fuel system via detachable fittings and dropped from the aircraft when the fuel was expended, allowing short-range aircraft such as fighters to accompany long-range aircraft such as bombers on longer missions as protection forces. Two types of paper tanks were used, a 200-gallon (758 l) conformal fuel tank made by the United States for the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, and a 108-gallon (409 l) cylindrical drop tank made by the British and used by the P-47 and the North American P-51 Mustang.^[17][18]

Combat decoy[edit]

From about 1915 in World War I, the British were beginning to counter the highly effective sniping of the Germans. Among the techniques the British developed was to employ papier-mâché figures resembling soldiers to draw sniper fire. Some were equipped with an apparatus that produced smoke from a cigarette, to increase the realism of the effect. Bullet holes in the decoys were used to determine the position of enemy snipers who had fired the shots. Very high success rates were claimed for this expedient.^[19]

See also[edit]

• Papier-mâché binding, a form of binding a book used in the 19th century
• Papier-mâché Tiara, a papal tiara made in exile for Pope Pius VII's papal coronation in a church in Venice in 1800
• Wet-folding, an origami technique that uses damp paper.

Notes[edit]

1. ^ ^abcHaley, Gail E (2002). Costumes for Plays and Playing. Parkway Publishers. ISBN1-887905-62-6.
2. ^ ^abEgerton, Wilbraham (1896). A Description of Indian and Oriental Armour. WH Allen & Co.
3. ^Rivers, Shayne; Umney, Nick (2003). Conservation of Furniture. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 205–6. ISBN0-7506-0958-3.
4. ^Blue Book. Tiffany & Co. 1893.
5. ^Andrews, Deborah ‘Debbie’. 'History of Papier Mâché Dolls'.
6. ^A history of paper boats, Cupery.
7. ^Bishop, Nathaniel Holmes, Voyage of the Paper Canoe, Project Gutenberg.
8. ^'How to Make Paper Mache Masks', Family crafts, About.
9. ^'Paper observatory domes'. Cupery.
10. ^'Columbia's New Observatory'(PDF). The New York Times. April 11, 1884.
11. ^'The special feature of the new observatory at Columbia College will be a paper dome'. The Harvard Crimson. March 19, 1883. Archived from the original on January 26, 2009.
12. ^Holley, Alexander Lyman (1865), A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor, Trübner & Co
13. ^Spon, Edward; Byrne, Oliver (1872), Spon's Dictionary of Engineering, E&FN
14. ^Barghetti, Adriano (2007). 1994–2003: 130 anni di storia del Carnevale di Viareggio, Carnevale d’Italia e d’Europa (in Italian). Pezzini.
15. ^Abrahams, Roger D (2006). Blues for New Orleans: Mardi Gras And America's Creole Soul. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN0-8122-3959-8.
16. ^Bendick, Jeanne (1945). Making the Movies. Whittlesey House: McGraw-Hill.
17. ^Freeman, Roger Anthony (1970). The Mighty Eighth: Units, Men, and Machines (A History of the US 8th Army Air Force). Doubleday.
18. ^Grant, William Newby (1980). P-51 Mustang. Chartwell Books. ISBN978-0-89009-320-7.
19. ^H. Hesketh-Pritchard, 'Sniping in France', page 46+, pub: E P Dutton